The Northern Crusades: The Crusades in the Baltic
The Northern Crusades were a series of military campaigns waged by Christian forces against the pagan peoples of the Baltic region. The standard English-language account remains Eric Christiansen’s The Northern Crusades (1980), which is now over forty years old but has not been replaced. The campaigns began in the 12th century and continued well into the 15th century, with the Teutonic Knights playing a central role. The Northern Crusades resulted in the Christianization of Prussia, Livonia, and (eventually) Lithuania, and they were a major factor in the development of the modern Baltic states. The Northern Crusades are an important and often controversial chapter in the history of the Crusades, and the chapter that the modern Western public has had the most trouble reckoning with.
For the broader context, see the main article on the Teutonic Knights, the Battle of Grunwald article, and what happened to the Teutonic Knights.
The Origins of the Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades began in the context of the medieval Church’s efforts to Christianize the pagan peoples of Northern Europe. The first major campaign was the Wendish Crusade of 1147, which was launched during the Second Crusade and which targeted the Slavic Wends of northeastern Germany. The Wendish Crusade was only partially successful, but it established the principle that the pagans of the Baltic could be subjected to Crusading campaigns.
The most important phase of the Northern Crusades began in 1226, when the Polish Duke Conrad of Mazovia invited the Teutonic Knights to come to Prussia to help him in his wars against the pagan Prussians. The Order accepted the invitation, and it began a long campaign of conquest and conversion. The Order’s conquest of Prussia was a long and difficult process, and it was not complete until 1283, when the last Prussian resistance was finally crushed.
The Order’s expansion was not limited to Prussia. In 1237, the Order merged with the Sword Brethren, a similar military order operating in Livonia (modern Latvia and Estonia). The merger created a powerful military force in the Baltic, and the Order’s territory now stretched from the Oder River to the Gulf of Finland. The Order’s conquest of Livonia was followed by a long series of campaigns against the Lithuanians, who remained pagan until 1386.
The Teutonic Knights’ Conquest of Prussia
The Teutonic Knights’ conquest of Prussia was one of the most significant events of the Northern Crusades. The Prussian tribes, including the Sambians, Natangians, and Warmians, were fierce fighters who resisted the Order’s advance for several decades. The Order’s conquest was marked by both military success and significant brutality, including the destruction of the Prussian religion, the displacement of the Prussian population, and the establishment of German colonies.
The Order’s conquest was organized in a series of campaigns, with the Order’s army advancing slowly through the Prussian territory. The Order built a series of castles to secure its conquests, and it established a network of commanderies to administer the conquered territory. The Order’s administration was based on a strict hierarchy, with the Grand Master at the top and the various provincial commanders below him.
The conquest of Prussia was completed in 1283, with the surrender of the last Prussian resistance. The conquered territory was organized as a state, with its capital first at Marienburg (now Malbork in Poland) and later at Königsberg (now Kaliningrad in Russia). The Order’s state in Prussia was a major power in the Baltic, and it played a central role in European politics.
The Order’s Expansion into Livonia
The Teutonic Knights expanded into Livonia in 1237, when they merged with the Sword Brethren. The Sword Brethren had been a military order founded in 1202 to Christianize the Baltic, and they had established a significant presence in Livonia. The merger created a powerful military force, and the Order’s territory now included modern Latvia, Estonia, and parts of Lithuania.
The Order’s expansion in Livonia was marked by both military success and significant brutality. The Order’s conquest of the Livonian tribes, including the Livs, Latgalians, and Estonians, was a long and difficult process. The Order’s administration in Livonia was based on a similar system to that in Prussia, with a series of castles and commanderies. The Order’s territory in Livonia was organized as a separate branch of the Order, with its own Landmeister (provincial commander).
The Order’s expansion in Livonia was followed by a long series of campaigns against the Lithuanians. The Lithuanians were the last pagan people in Europe, and they resisted the Order’s advance for over a century. The Order’s campaigns in Lithuania were marked by both military success and significant violence, including the capture of slaves and the destruction of villages. The Order’s campaigns in Lithuania were finally brought to an end in 1386, when Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania converted to Christianity and was baptized as Wladyslaw II Jagiello, the future king of Poland.
The Christianization of Lithuania
The Christianization of Lithuania in 1386 was a major turning point in the history of the Northern Crusades. The conversion of Grand Duke Jogaila to Christianity, in return for his marriage to the Polish queen Jadwiga, marked the end of the pagan era in the Baltic. The conversion was followed by the gradual Christianization of the Lithuanian population, and it ended the Teutonic Knights’ justification for their campaigns in the region.
The Christianization of Lithuania was a major blow to the Teutonic Knights. The Order had justified its campaigns in Lithuania by the need to Christianize the pagans, and the conversion of Lithuania removed this justification. The Order was forced to find a new justification for its continued presence in the Baltic, and it increasingly relied on the defense of the Christian faith against Orthodox Russia. The change in justification was a major factor in the conflict between the Order and the Polish-Lithuanian alliance, which would culminate in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410.
The Christianization of Lithuania was also a major factor in the development of the Polish-Lithuanian alliance. The conversion of Jogaila and his marriage to Jadwiga created a close relationship between Poland and Lithuania, and the two countries would remain closely allied for centuries. The Polish-Lithuanian alliance was a major counterweight to Teutonic power in the Baltic, and it would eventually lead to the Order’s decline.
The Legacy of the Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades are an important and controversial chapter in the history of the Crusades. The campaigns resulted in the Christianization of the Baltic, and they were a major factor in the development of the modern Baltic states. The campaigns also established a strong German presence in the region, with the Teutonic Knights and their successors ruling much of the Baltic for centuries.
The legacy of the Northern Crusades is also controversial. The campaigns involved the destruction of pagan religions, the displacement of indigenous peoples, and the establishment of German colonies. The campaigns were also marked by significant brutality, including the capture of slaves and the destruction of villages. The Northern Crusades remain a sensitive topic in the Baltic states, especially in Poland and Lithuania, where the Teutonic Knights are often viewed negatively.
The most important modern works on the Northern Crusades include William Urban’s The Baltic Crusade (2007) and Eric Christiansen’s The Northern Crusades (1980). Christiansen’s work is the most comprehensive and the most authoritative, and it has helped to refine our understanding of the campaigns. Urban’s work provides a more accessible account of the campaigns, and it has been widely read by general audiences. Other important works include those by Hartmut Boockmann, who has written on the Order’s role in the Baltic.