Saladin: The Founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty

Every so often in the history of the medieval world, a man emerges who, by force of personality and a series of mostly lucky accidents, comes to stand for something much larger than himself. Saladin is one of those. He was a Kurd from Tikrit, a nephew of a Zengid general, a vizier in Cairo who became a sultan, and the only Muslim ruler of the Crusading period whose reputation, both in the East and in the West, has survived the long centuries as a positive figure. Walter Scott made him the chivalrous adversary of Richard the Lionheart; the modern Arab world has made him the liberator of Jerusalem; the Kurds have made him a national hero. None of these readings is exactly wrong, and none is exactly right.

This pillar tries to give Saladin in something like 4,000 words. For deeper dives into specific aspects, see Saladin’s conquest of Jerusalem, the Battle of Hattin article, was Saladin a Kurd or Arab, and how Saladin died.

A note on the historiography. The standard English-language biography is still Malcolm Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson’s Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War (1982), which is now over forty years old but has not been replaced. The Arabic-language scholarship is much larger, and includes the recent work of Mahmoud M. Sayed, Anouar Majid, and the older, still essential, studies of the classical Arab historians. The most important primary source remains Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad’s The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya), which is the contemporary account by Saladin’s personal secretary and which is one of the most readable medieval Arabic sources we have.

Saladin’s early life

Saladin was born in 1137 in Tikrit, in modern Iraq, into a Kurdish family of military and political importance. His father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, was a commander in the service of the Seljuk Turkish rulers of the region, and his uncle, Asad ad-Din Shirkuh, was a famous general. The family had long been associated with the Kurdish military and political elite of the region, and Saladin was trained in the arts of war and statecraft from a young age.

Saladin’s family moved to Syria in the 1140s, where his father and his uncle served the Zengid dynasty of Aleppo and Mosul. The Zengid dynasty was the most powerful Muslim dynasty in the region, and it was a major adversary of the Crusader States. Saladin was educated in the religious and military traditions of the Muslim world, and he was trained in the use of arms and in the tactics of war.

Saladin’s family was closely associated with Nur ad-Din, the Zengid ruler of Syria. When Nur ad-Din sent his general Shirkuh to Egypt in 1164, Saladin accompanied his uncle. The expedition was part of a long struggle for control of Egypt, which had been a Fatimid caliphate, and it was a major factor in the rise of the Ayyubid dynasty.

The unification of Egypt and Syria

Saladin’s career took a decisive turn in 1169, when he was appointed vizier of Egypt. The Fatimid caliphate in Egypt was in decline, and the Zengid dynasty was the dominant power in the Muslim East. Saladin’s appointment as vizier gave him effective control of Egypt, and he used his position to build up his power and to prepare for the eventual conquest of Syria.

In 1171, Saladin overthrew the Fatimid caliphate and established the Ayyubid dynasty. He claimed to be acting in the name of the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, and he announced that Egypt would be governed according to Sunni Islamic law. The overthrow of the Fatimid caliphate was a major event in the history of the Muslim world, and it marked the end of the Shi’a Fatimid dynasty that had ruled Egypt for nearly 200 years.

The unification of Egypt and Syria was a long process, and it was not complete until 1186, when Saladin captured Aleppo and most of the Zengid territories. The unification was achieved through a combination of military force, political alliances, and marriage diplomacy. The unified Ayyubid state was one of the largest Muslim empires since the early caliphate, and it was a major adversary of the Crusader States.

The Battle of Hattin (1187)

The Battle of Hattin in 1187 was the most important military victory of Saladin’s career. The battle was fought on 4 July 1187, near the Horns of Hattin in Galilee, and it was a decisive defeat for the Crusader army. The Crusader army, the principal fighting force of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, was destroyed. King Guy of Lusignan was captured. The True Cross, the most sacred relic of the Kingdom, fell into Muslim hands.

The battle is examined in detail in the Battle of Hattin article. The battle was the result of Saladin’s invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, and it was a major military disaster for the Crusaders. The battle was followed by Saladin’s conquest of nearly every important Crusader city, including Jerusalem on 2 October 1187. The fall of Jerusalem triggered the Third Crusade.

Saladin’s victory at Hattin was a major turning point in the history of the Crusades. It marked the end of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a major power, and it shifted the balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean decisively in favour of the Muslims. The victory was also a major boost to Saladin’s reputation, both in the Muslim world and in the West.

The conquest of Jerusalem (1187)

The conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was the most famous event of Saladin’s career. The city, which had been in Christian hands since the First Crusade in 1099, surrendered to Saladin on 2 October 1187. The surrender was negotiated, and Saladin was widely praised for his chivalrous treatment of the Christian population.

The conquest of Jerusalem was a major event in the history of the Crusades. The loss of the city, after nearly 90 years of Christian rule, was a profound shock to the Latin West, and it triggered the Third Crusade. The conquest was also a major event in the history of the Muslim world, and it was celebrated as a great victory of jihad.

Saladin’s treatment of the Christian population of Jerusalem was remarkably lenient. The Christian inhabitants were allowed to leave the city, and they were given safe passage to the Crusader territories. The men were required to pay a ransom of 10 dinars each, the women 5 dinars, and the children 1 dinar. Those who could not pay were sold into slavery, but Saladin released many of them on his own authority. The Christian holy places were preserved, and the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem was allowed to remain in the city.

The terms of the surrender were remarkably lenient, especially in comparison with the Christian treatment of Muslim populations in earlier Crusades. Saladin’s generosity was widely praised by contemporary chroniclers, and it became a major part of the Saladin legend. The chronicler Ibn al-Athir, who was not always friendly to Saladin, recorded that he “treated them with a humanity and tolerance that have no parallel in the history of the Crusades.”

The Third Crusade and Richard the Lionheart

The fall of Jerusalem triggered the Third Crusade, one of the most famous expeditions of the medieval period. The Crusade was led by the three most powerful rulers of Europe: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Philip II of France, and King Richard the Lionheart. The Third Crusade is examined in detail in the main article on the Third Crusade.

The Third Crusade brought Saladin into direct conflict with Richard the Lionheart, and the duel between the two men is one of the most famous in medieval history. The two men developed a grudging respect for each other, and Saladin was reportedly impressed by Richard’s military skill and his personal courage. The relationship between the two men has been the subject of numerous works of literature, art, and film, and it is one of the most famous in the medieval period.

The Third Crusade ended with the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192, which was a compromise. Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands, but the treaty allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the Holy City. The treaty was a remarkable achievement, and it kept the Crusader States alive for another century. The relationship between Richard and Saladin is one of the most famous in the history of the Crusades.

Saladin’s character and legacy

Saladin’s character has been the subject of intense historical and popular interest. He was a skilled military commander, a wise statesman, and a deeply religious man. He was also famous for his personal chivalry, his generosity to his enemies, and his commitment to the principles of jihad. The Muslim chronicler Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, who knew Saladin personally, described him as a model of Muslim virtue, and his account has shaped the Muslim view of Saladin ever since.

Saladin’s reputation in the West is more complex. The medieval Christian view of Saladin was largely negative, and he was often portrayed as a fierce and dangerous enemy. The 19th-century Romantic view of Saladin, however, was more positive, and he was often portrayed as a chivalrous adversary of Richard the Lionheart. The most famous modern treatment of Saladin is in Walter Scott’s novel The Talisman (1825), which has shaped Western perceptions of Saladin for nearly 200 years.

Saladin’s legacy is also significant for the modern Middle East. He is celebrated in the Muslim world as a great hero and a model of Muslim virtue. The figure of Saladin has been invoked in various political contexts, especially in the struggle against Western colonialism and in the cause of Palestinian nationalism. The image of Saladin as a chivalrous and religious leader has been a powerful symbol in the modern Muslim world, and it continues to shape the relationship between the Christian West and the Muslim world.

The most important Muslim source on Saladin is the biography of Saladin by his contemporary Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin. The book is a major primary source, and it has shaped the Muslim view of Saladin for centuries. Other important sources include the biographies by Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani and Ibn al-Athir.

Saladin’s tomb is in Damascus, near the Umayyad Mosque, and it is a major shrine. The tomb was restored in the 19th century, and it is now a major tourist attraction. The tomb is a reminder of Saladin’s enduring importance, both in the Muslim world and in the West.

Saladin and the question of Kurdish identity

Saladin’s Kurdish identity has been a matter of some controversy in modern times. Saladin is celebrated in the Kurdish nationalist movement as a great Kurdish hero, and his image is used in various political contexts. The question of whether Saladin was a Kurd or an Arab is examined in was Saladin a Kurd or Arab. The question is more complex than it might seem, because the categories of “Kurd” and “Arab” in the 12th century were not always the same as they are today.

The Kurdish identity of Saladin has been a major issue in the development of Kurdish nationalism, and it has been the subject of intense historical debate. The modern Kurdish nationalist movement has used Saladin as a symbol of Kurdish cultural and political achievement, and the image of Saladin has been a powerful symbol in the struggle for Kurdish self-determination.

Saladin’s place in the Crusading era

Saladin’s career is the central story of the Crusading period, and his achievements have shaped the way historians understand the medieval Middle East. The unification of Egypt, Syria, and the Jazira under his rule was the most important political development in the Muslim East since the early caliphate. The defeat of the Crusader States at the Battle of Hattin and the conquest of Jerusalem marked a decisive shift in the balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean, and it set the stage for the eventual end of the Crusader presence in the Holy Land.

Saladin’s place in the Crusading era is also significant for the development of the relationship between the Christian West and the Muslim world. Saladin’s chivalrous treatment of the Christian population of Jerusalem, his personal relationship with Richard the Lionheart, and his commitment to the principles of jihad have all shaped the modern perception of the Crusades. The figure of Saladin has been a powerful symbol in the modern Middle East, and it continues to influence the relationship between the Christian West and the Muslim world.

A closing observation, after writing this pillar. The reason Saladin has lasted in the Western imagination — long after the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, and the Hospitallers have become specialist subjects — is that his story fits a Western narrative of the chivalrous enemy. It is, in a sense, a story we tell about ourselves. The Muslim reading of Saladin is different, and the Kurdish reading is different again. Saladin was a real person, and the multiple readings of his career are not just projections; they are also responses to a complex historical figure who, by all the sources we have, was unusually good at being what he needed to be for the people he was with.