Richard the Lionheart: The Central Figure of the Third Crusade
Richard I of England, known as Richard the Lionheart (1157–1199), was the central figure of the Third Crusade and the most famous of the medieval Crusader kings. The best biographies in English are John Gillingham’s Richard the Lionheart (1978) and Jonathan Phillips’s The Life and Legend of Richard the Lionheart (2015); the older work by H. W. C. Davis in the Dictionary of National Biography (1896) is also worth reading. He led the English army in the expedition, won the most important Crusader victory of the campaign at the Battle of Arsuf, and forced Saladin to a negotiated peace. His career as a Crusader is the subject of this article, but Richard was also a complex figure: a brilliant soldier, a mediocre king, and a poet who composed one of the most famous songs of the Middle Ages. He is one of the most discussed figures in medieval history, and his reputation has been shaped both by his military exploits and by his chivalric legend.
For the broader context, see the main article on the Third Crusade and the Battle of Hattin. For the events of the Crusade, see What Happened at the Battle of Arsuf.
Richard Before the Crusade
Richard was born on 8 September 1157 at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, the third son of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was given the duchy of Aquitaine in 1168 and was educated in the literary and chivalric culture of the court of his mother. He was an excellent linguist, speaking both French and Occitan, and he was a composer of verses. His Occitan song “Ja nus hons pris” (“No man captured”), written during his captivity in Austria, is one of the most famous poems of the Middle Ages.
Richard’s early career was marked by rebellion against his father Henry II. In 1173, he joined the famous revolt of his mother and brothers against Henry, and he spent much of the 1170s and 1180s in armed conflict with his father. He succeeded to the English throne on 6 July 1189, following Henry’s death, and was crowned on 3 September 1189.
Richard Takes the Cross
Richard had taken the cross at the Council of Gisors in 1187, in the immediate aftermath of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin. His decision to go on Crusade was influenced by several factors, including his chivalric ideals, his rivalry with Philip II of France, and his genuine religious devotion. The reasons are explored in why Richard the Lionheart went on Crusade.
Richard spent the years 1189-1190 preparing for the expedition. He raised money by every means available: he sold offices, he sold sheriffdoms, he even reportedly said he would sell London itself if he could find a buyer. The Saladin Tithe of 1189-1190, which Richard imposed on his subjects, was a significant innovation in royal taxation. The army that Richard assembled was one of the best-equipped of the medieval period.
The Voyage to the Holy Land
Richard’s Crusade began in 1190. He traveled overland to Marseilles, where he took ship with a substantial fleet. He made a stop in Sicily, where he quarreled with Philip II, who had wintered there with the French army. Richard and Philip were allies on paper, but they had a difficult personal relationship. Philip was jealous of Richard’s military reputation, and Richard was contemptuous of Philip’s cautious approach to the Crusade.
From Sicily, Richard sailed to Cyprus, where he became involved in a local political dispute. He conquered the island in May 1191, an episode that became famous in medieval romance. The conquest of Cyprus was not part of Richard’s original plan, but it gave him a valuable base in the Eastern Mediterranean. The island remained in Christian hands for centuries, and it was eventually sold to the Lusignan dynasty, who held it until 1489.
The Battle of Arsuf
The Battle of Arsuf, fought on 7 September 1191, is the central military episode of Richard’s Crusade. The battle is examined in detail in What Happened at the Battle of Arsuf, but the key fact is that Richard won a decisive victory. The Crusader army, marching south from Acre to Jaffa, was attacked by Saladin’s forces. Richard kept his army in close formation and counterattacked at the right moment, winning a clear victory.
The victory at Arsuf was Richard’s greatest triumph. It demonstrated that he was a master of battlefield discipline and timing, and it confirmed his reputation as the most dangerous Crusader commander. The battle also opened the way for the recapture of Jaffa and the march toward Jerusalem.
The March on Jerusalem and the Treaty of Jaffa
After Arsuf, Richard marched south along the coast, capturing Jaffa. He then advanced toward Jerusalem, but he was forced to withdraw. The reasons for the withdrawal are complex. The Crusader army was too small to besiege the city. Saladin’s forces were too strong to be defeated in open battle. The political situation in the Latin East was unstable.
The Third Crusade ended with the Treaty of Jaffa, signed by Richard and Saladin on 2 September 1192. The treaty was a compromise: Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands, but Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the Holy City. The treaty was a remarkable achievement, and it kept the Crusader States alive for another century.
The Personal Relationship Between Richard and Saladin
One of the most striking features of the Third Crusade is the personal relationship that developed between Richard and Saladin. According to several sources, the two men respected each other. Saladin reportedly sent Richard fresh fruit when the Crusader army was suffering from hunger, and Richard is said to have reciprocated with similar gestures. The two men never met face to face, but they exchanged gifts and messages.
The story of Richard and Saladin became a staple of medieval romance. The most famous version is in the Chanson de Jérusalem and the Chanson d’Antioche, Old French epic poems that portray the two men as noble adversaries. The relationship is also celebrated in modern fiction, including Walter Scott’s The Talisman (1825) and the film Kingdom of Heaven (2005). The historical reality is more complex, but the legend of Richard and Saladin is one of the most enduring products of the Crusading movement.
Richard’s Return and His Death
Richard left the Holy Land in October 1192. His return to Europe was eventful: he was shipwrecked in the Adriatic, captured by Duke Leopold V of Austria, and held for ransom by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. The ransom demanded was enormous: 100,000 marks, more than twice the annual revenue of the English crown. The money was eventually raised, and Richard was released in February 1194.
Richard spent the rest of his reign fighting in France. He was determined to recover the territories that Philip II had taken during his absence, and he launched a series of campaigns in Normandy and elsewhere. He was mortally wounded on 6 April 1199, while besieging the castle of Châlus-Chabrol in Limousin. He died on the same day, at the age of 41.
The Reputation of Richard the Lionheart
Richard’s reputation has fluctuated over the centuries. Medieval sources generally praised him, and he was celebrated as the ideal of Christian chivalry. The chronicle of Roger of Howden, for example, praised his military skill and his generosity. Modern historians have been more critical. John Gillingham’s Richard the Lionheart (1978) rehabilitated Richard’s reputation as a soldier, but it also showed that he was an indifferent king, absent from his realm for most of his reign.
The truth about Richard is more complex than either the medieval or the modern image suggests. He was a brilliant soldier, but he was not always a wise strategist. He was personally courageous, but he could be impulsive. He was deeply religious, but he was also capable of great cruelty. He was, in short, a man of his times: violent, ambitious, talented, and flawed.
The most recent and authoritative treatment of Richard is Jonathan Phillips’s The Life and Legend of Richard the Lionheart (2015), which draws on a wide range of sources to provide a balanced view of the king. Phillips argues that Richard was a more complex figure than the medieval legends suggest, but that his military skill and his personal courage were genuine.